A Study of Intertextuality in Political Press Samples

The paper tries to study the Linguistic phenomenon of intertextuality in general and in press discourse in special . In this study we try to show the nature of the term and the reason behind the wide interest in it . The study begins with a simple introduction as a preliminary for the subject . Some definitions and ideas of different authors to show the nature of the term are introduced .The types and dimensions of intertextuality are also mentioned . The work introduces the analysis of certain press samples according to an ecletic model to end with the conclusions then the bibliography. تاباتكلا ةيفحصلا ةيسايسلا ةسارد ةيصن .د نسح يداه نسح ديمح لامك دغر .د ةحوتفملا ةيبرتلا ةيلك / ىلايد زكرم :صخلملا يصنلا لخادتلا ةرهاظ ثحبلا اذه سردي intertextuality مومعلا هجو ىلع تاباتكلا يفو ةصاخ ةروصب ةيفحصلا ةسا ردلا هذه لواحت . أ ن مامتهلاا ءا رو رسلاو ةرهاظلا هذه ةعيبط نيبت فيراعتلا ضعب ميدقتب مث عوضوملل ديهمتك ةطيسب ةمدقمب ةسا ردلا ادبت . اهب عساولا ءا رلآاو فلتخمل يصنلا لخادتلا داعباو عاونا مها ضا رعتسا اًضيا مت . عوضوملا ةعيبط حيضوت لجا نم نييوغللا ةيفحص جذامن ليلحتب عوضوملا يهتنيل نم ةعومجمب جورخلاو ةددحم .ةبسانملا تاجاتنتسلاا AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 122 1.Introduction Even with a single text, Wales (1989:259-60) says, there can be, as it were, a continual dialogue between the text given and other texts / utterances that exist outside it, literary and non-literary , either within that period of composition or in previous centuries. It is believed that no text is free from other texts. In the same direction Worton et al. (1990:2) believe that although the term intertextuality dates from the 1960s the phenomenon in some form is at least as old as recorded-human society. Unsurprisingly , therefore, we can find theories of intertextuality wherever there has been discourse about textsboth because thinkers were aware of intertextuality relations and because our knowledge of the theory makes us, as readers, keen to re-read our source text in that light. Thus, a text is a transformation of another, a common way that intertextuality works. Intertextuality should not be limited only to the study of literary texts or other types of texts, political texts for example, but the phenomenon can be realized in every – day life speech , i.e. in every day communication in a way or another. Whenever intertextuality is felt names as Kristeva (late 1960s) , Bakhtin and Fairclough should be remembered. 2. Definition and nature of the term Intertextuality can be defined as utterances / texts in relation to other utterances/ texts, Wales (ibid) argues that the term was introduced first into French criticism in the late 1960s by Kristeva in her discussion and elaboration of the ideas of Bakhtin especially his general dialogue principle. Transtexuality is another term that is found sometimes as an equivalent term to intertextuality. Kristeva has argued that every text is under the jurisdiction of other discourse, and that imitation and translation should also be considered as forms of creative splitting which function both as temporary proofs of the integrity of the writing subject and as trasgressive inscriptions of (feminine) fluidity into textuality. Bakhtin, cited in Worton et al (1990:15) argues that when people speak they use a specific mix of discourse which they have appropriated in an attempt to communicate their intentions. However, Bakhtin adds, they inevitably suffer interference from two sources: words` preexisting meaning and the alien intention of a real interlocutor (as opposed to the perfect understanding of a super addressee). Writers of literature can attempt artificially to strip language of others` intentions, a unifying project which Bakhtin calls monologism or poetry . AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 123 Genre , for example, can be considered as an intertextual concept : a poem written in the genre of a sonnet conforms to conventions that belong to a particular tradition inherited by the poet and which are also perhaps being exploited by the poet`s contemporaries. When Shakespeare writes :"my mistress eyes are nothing like the sun" (sonnet130), as a narrator he is reacting against the convention sonnet (Conceits) in a kind of interactive dialogue , conceits which his readers also must know about . For the reader, therefore, intertextuality functions as an important Frame of Reference which helps in the Interpretation of a text. The term may be a process of borrowing which is a more obvious process that shades into a form of phrase in Poetic Diction e.g. (funny tribe); a quotation or allusion or titles( as in Wild`s A little Sincerity is a dangerous thing ) or titles like Brave New World) or insertion (as in Eliot`s The Wasteland); or structural models. Intertextuality should not be mixed with intersubjectivity, which sometimes used as an alternative of the first. It essentially concerns the relations a text has with wider or vaguer spheres of knowledge which the reader must draw upon for a shared knowledge between the interactants. Worton et al (1990:1) in their introduction believe that the theory of intertextuality first introduced by Julia Kristeva (mentioned earlier) insists that a text cannot exist as a hermetic closed system and this is for two reasons: firstly the writer is a reader of texts in the broadest sense, before s/he is a creator of texts and therefore, the work of art is inevitably shot through with references, quotations and influences of every kind . Here, the authors give an example and say that Rousseau does not entitle his autobiography(the confessions) in ignorance of church practices or of St Augustine`s work of the same name. This repetition of past or of contemporary texts can range from the most conscious and sophisticated elaboration of other poets` work , to a scholarly use of sources , or the quotation conversational snatches at a certain historical moment. Secondly, the authors (ibid)continue , a text is available only through some process of reading: what is produced at the moment of reading is due to the crossfertilization of the packaged textual material (a book) by all the texts which the reader brings to it. Worton et al (ibid:19) extract the following from previous writers who were concerned with intertextuality to show that the term is used in the sense that a text may appear to be the spontaneous and transparent expression of a writers` intentions, but must necessarily contain elements of other sources: AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 124 [ It is impossible to develop my selected mode of writing Within duration without gradually becoming a prisoner of someone else`s words and even my own . A stubborn after-image which comes from all the previous modes of writing and even from the past of my own drowns the sound of my present words. Any written trace , innocent and neutral mere duration gradually reveals in suspension a whole past of increasing density, like a cryptogram.] Thornborrow et al (1998:171-172) call the process of intertextuality as a kind of (collage) and (allusing) . This was also happening in the paintings of that time. Braque, for example, incorporated strips of wallpaper into his work. T. S. Eliot`s poem (The Waste Land)is constructed to quite a considerable extent from pieces of other texts including works by Shakespeare Webster, Goldsmith and Dante, extracts form the Bible and form Wagner`s Opera (Tristan and Isold). In Eliot`s case, this was in part because he was identifying his poetry with the tradition of European literature , from medieval poets like Chaucer and Dante to the late nineteenth century ones like Baudelaire. It was as if he were claiming that literature is like a relay race and that he was the appropriate person to take up the baton in the twentieth century. For Eliot and others, Thornborrow et al (ibid), the use of allusion to other works of literature was a way of exploring twentieth – century life and meaning in relation to the cultures which had gone before – the myths, religious and secular, on which Western Culture is found. Allen (2000) in his introduction sees intertextuality as a dominant idea with literary and cultural studies ,taken up by practically every theoretical movement. Yet the phenomenon remains a subject of such a diversity of interpretations and is defined so variously, that is anything but a transparent, commonly understood term. 3. How a new text built Fairclough ( 2006:101-4) relates the term to the change in discourse, structuring and the restructuring of orders of such discourse. Bakhtin , cited in Fairclough (ibid), points that to the relative neglect of the communicative functions of language within main stream linguistics and more specially to the neglect of ways in which texts and utterances are shaped by prior texts that they are responding to and by subsequent texts that they anticipate . For Bakhtin , all utterances, of spoken and written from the briefest of turns in a conversation to a scientific paper or a novel , are demarcated by a change of speaker(or writer), and are oriented retrospectively to the utterances of previous speakers. Texts are so AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 125 intertextual for Bakhtin, Fairclough (ibid) adds that all words of others carry with them their own expression , their own evaluative tone which we assimilate rework and reaccentuate. Thus it seems that almost all new texts are in a way or another, copies of certain original ones either in design , structure or type of genre. The other forms of intertextuality ,for Brown et al (ibid.) are less obscure and include footnotes ,references, and other scholarly forms of citation of sources ,yet other forms of intertextuality have been codified as (genres). Genres, referred to earlier in (1) , are literary forms that share a given set of characteristics , both formal and content based) such a Parody which consists in taking a text and rewriting it keeping either the form or the content unchanged or (minimally so) and introducing changes (again either formal or related to the content of the text that ridicule the work or the author). Here, the phenomenon may be used as a kind of intended scorn or humiliation of the piece of writing or the writer himself through at least changing the title, for example, into something near. 4. Intertextuality : Types and Dimensions 4.1. Intertextuality As Allusions Allusions ,mentioned earlier as a type of borrowing are for, Brown et al (2008:24) references to other usually well-known texts or events that the speaker does not have to repeat in detail but can leave implicit. Such allusions fall under the banner of intertextuality, which can be simply defined as all the references among texts or part of them . For example, T.S.Eliot`s (The Love Song) starts with a citation (In Italian) from Dante`s (Divine Comedy) and specially from the( Inferno) . A citation is an explicit form of intertextual relationship (the author of a text "borrows" a part of another text, which in this case also works as an allusion (it is not explicitly identified as being Dante`s text) and moreover as a symbol of the "hellish" situation in which Prufrock finds himself. 4.2 Intertextuality , Discourse and Social Change Fairclough (ibid:102) continues his description of intertextuality saying that there is a relation between discourse and social change . He observes that Kristeva (1986:39) believes that intertextuality should imply the insertion of history (society) into a text. By that she means that the text absorbs and is built out of texts, from the past (texts being the major artifacts that constitute history. By the insertion of the text into history Fairclough (ibid) adds, Kristeva sees that the text responds to restructure and rework past texts and in so doing helps to make history and contributes to wider processes of change as well as anticipating and trying to shape AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 126 subsequent texts. This inherent historicity of texts enables them to take on the major roles that they have in contemporary society at the leading edge of social and cultural change. The rapid transformation and restructuring of textual traditions and orders of discourse is a striking contemporary phenomenon which suggests that intertextuality ought to be a major focus in discourse analysis. 4.3 Intertextuality and Hegemony Fairclough (ibid:102-3) relates between intertextuality and hegemony (a theory of power) and says that the above concept points to the productivity of texts , to how texts can transform prior texts and restructure existing convention (genres, discourses) to generate new ones . But this productivity is not in practice available to people as a limited and constrained and conditional upon relations of power. It is the power and impact of social relations upon people that can shape new innovated texts. Thus , the theory, for Fairclough (ibid), cannot itself account for these social limitations without being combined with a theory of power 4.4. Intertextuality and Conventions Fairclough (ibid) speaks here about intertextuality and conventions saying that in addition to incorporating or otherwise responding to other texts, the new text can be seen as incorporating the potentially complex relationships it has with the conventions (genres, discourses, styles, activity types ) which are structural together to constitute an order of discourse. Bakhtin, says Fairclough, notes that texts may not only draw straightforward upon the noted conventions, but may also (re accentuate) them by, for example, using them ironically periodically or reverently or may mix them in various way. Fairclough (ibid:117) mentions that manifest intertextuality is the case where specific other texts are overtly drawn upon within a text. He discusses the matter in relation to discourse representation, presupposition negation, meta discourse and irony. Concerning discourse representation he mentions that when one reports discourse one necessarily chooses to represent it in one way rather than another and also what is represented is not just speech but also writing . Discourse types differ not only in the way in which they represent and the functions of discourse in the representing texts. Presuppositions (as propositions taken by the producer of the text) are seen as a way of incorporating the texts of others and an effective way to manipulate people because they are often difficult to challenge. For AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 127 example, an interviewee in a media interview who challenges a presupposition in a question from the interviewer can easily appear to be dodging the issue and in so doing the ideological constitution of subjects may be rebuilt. Concerning negative, Fairclough (ibid:121-22), believes that negative sentences are often used for polemical purposes . They carry special types of presupposition which also work as intertextuality. He gives us the following newspaper headline as an example: "I didn`t murder squealer. Robbery trial man hits out" This negative first sentence presupposes the proposition in some other text, that the person quoted here did murder a squealer (police informant). Intertextuality may be manifested in irony ( saying one thing and meaning another). Such an explanation is of limited utility because what it misses is the intertextual nature of irony the fact that an ironic utterance echoes someone else`s utterance. Thus, uttering something like "it is a lovely day for a picnic" then it rains and I return to say also "it is a lovely day for a picnic" . Here, the last utterance seems "ironic " . It is right it echoes the first one but there is disparity between the meaning for the real function of the last is to show negative attitude , anger or a sort of sarcasm. But here, Fairclough (ibid:123), show that irony depends upon interpreters and their ability to recognize that the meaning of an echoed text is not the text producers` meaning. Meta discourse is , for fairclough (ibid) another peculiar form of manifest intertextuality where the text producer distinguishes different levels within the same text and distances herself / himself from some level of the text treating the distanced level as if it were another external text. The use of Hedging with expressions such as (sort of, kind of , may mark that . Metadiscourse implies that the speaker is situated above or outside her own discourse and is in a position to control and manipulate it. Fairclough (ibid) returns to display a French discourse analysis idea saying that the distinction between intertextual relations of texts to specific other texts and intertextual relations of texts to conventions is linked to another distinction and that is manifest as opposed to constitutive intertextuality . In manifest intertextuality , other texts are explicitly present in text under analysis , they are manifestly marked or cued by features on the surface of the text, such as quotation marks. Also , a text may incorporate another text without the latter being explicitly cued: one can respond to another text in the way of wording. The constitutive AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 128 intertextuality of a text, however, Fairclough resumes, is the configuration of discourse conventions that go into its production. 4.5 Intertextuality and the Heterogenety Intertextuality entails an emphasis upon the hetrogenity of texts and a mode of analysis which highlights the diverse and often contradictory elements and threads which go on to make up a text. Texts vary a great deal in their degrees of heterogeneity depending upon whether their intertextual relations are complex or simple. Texts also differ in the extent to which their heterogenous elements are integrated and so in the extent to which their heterogenety is evident on the surface of the text. Thus a heterogeneous text may have an uneven and bumpy textual surface or relatively smooth one. Fairclough (ibid:104) . 4.6 Interdiscursivity as Constitutive Intertextuality Fairclough (ibid:124) mentions the principle of interdiscursivity by suggesting that orders of discourse have primacy over particular types of discourse and that the latter are constituted as configurations of diverse elements of orders of discourse . The above principle applies at various levels: the societal order of discourse, the discourse type and even the above elements can range from turn –taking systems to vocabulary , scripts for genres such as crime reports, sets of politeness conventions and so forth. Such elements can also be classified in terms of a small number of major types of which particular vocabularies, turn taking systems and so forth. The above types include :genre, style, register and discourse. One may talk here about intertextuality genre, conversational style, the register of cookery books or scientific medical discourse. 4.7 Intertextuality in Transformed Texts Building on Kristeva 1986 Fairclough (ibid:130) mentions that particular practices within and across institutions have associated within them particular intertextual chains, series of types of texts which are transformational related to each other in the sense that each member of the series is transformed into one or more of the others in regular and predictable ways . These chains are sequential or syntagmatic in contrast to the paradigmatic intertextual relations or as called inter discursivity . Fairclough here, gives us an example and mentions the chain which links medical consultations with medical records: doctors routinely transform the former into the latter. Also, intertextual chains can be quite complex AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 129 especially those that concern the texts of international diplomacy and arms negotiations for example. Thus a certain political speech may be transformed into media texts of various types in different countries .It may be changed into reports, analyzed and commented on by different diplomats. It may be elaborated or paraphrased to take different transformed types. 4.8 Intertextuality and Language Use Nearly all the points mentioned earlier in this work deal with the subject intertextuality as written texts. In what follows, the phenomenon as usage – orientedprocess is going to be tackled taking into consideration that language is speech and oral usage in origin. According to Gasparov (2010:1) language can be looked at through the umbrella name of (cognitive linguistics) as usage oriented process. Language should be considered as speech activity before all . It is a new understanding of language. Thus intertextuality can be realized also through speech and not necessarily through written materials as has been mentioned earlier. Speech can be considered as an intertextual activity : speakers always build something new by infusing it with their recollection of textual fragments drawn from previous instances of speech. The mental work involved in this process, shifting frames, blending conceptual domains, making analogical extensions is not purely conceptual: it is grounded in and intermingled with tangible pieces of textual matter that are in speakers` possess issue, it always bears the imprint of the language matter of language used in process. The speaker`s creative will make these pieces of language matter pliant; it alters, mixes, and reinterpret them, accommodating them to the speaker`s intention. Gasparov (ibid:4) sums up the above and says that all cognitive operations with language are intertextual in their nature. A conventional unit of language is a thing first and foremost –a tangible piece of experience kept by memory. It can be schematized , blended with other pieces, analogically stretched, reframed; yet in all these cognitive operations it preserves what is inalienable feature of any tangible objectits textual. So, the intertextual model of language usage can be understood as a part of the usage – oriented approach that highlights the impact of unique textures of remembered fragments of speech on cognitive operations with language. 4.9. Intertextuality and Speech Context Gasparov (ibid) mentions the following example for the purpose of showing the role of the texture of speech fragments in cognitive operations AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 130 with language , to know the effect of context on getting the intended meaning by the speaker. " The mushroom omelet left without paying." The mentioned example, Gasparov says, is a vivid illustration of speakers` creativity in dealing with language. Grasping the intention here involves an effort of imagination that could be neither prescribed by any set of rules. It is the cognitive `genius 'of the speaker and the addressee that enables them to create and comprehend such an intelligent conceptual blending. To reach that ,one should know who might say this, to whom, under what circumstances and for what purposes. The subject matter (The mushroom omelet) in the above example suggests its scene that should be imagined and it is certainly some kind of restaurant. What matters here is the touch of intertextuality found and through the different facets of meaning that can be grasped. One cannot think at all that the mushroom omelet can get up from the table and slip a way . A scene like that should seem comic and un acceptable. Also, any customers who are expected to be there in the supposed restaurant would not refer to another clients in that way. So, it is certainly a perceivable feature of waiters` discourse when they identify people with the food they eat for the sake of brevity with the adding of a slight touch of mockery to the scene. Not only that but a waiter / waitress may express his/ her hurt or anxiety for the loss of the money that should be paid by the client meant. This new meaning may be realized through the sharp tone uttered by those waiters the intonation with which the sentence could be uttered the tempo of speech and the emotional timbre of the speakers` voice. So, (The mushroom omelet) remains (The mushroom omelet) , i.e. the original text, phrase or sentence keeps as it is, but may include different intentions according to context or the way of utterance. This is considered as another face of intertextuality. 4.10 Memory and Intertextuality Still and according to Gasparov (2010:14) the usage – oriented approach to language is an approach that is memory oriented and time oriented. Our language is not a phenomenon to be grasped once and forever; it is a continuous life – long occupation. If we had needed certain word forms or words combinations only once, it would have been strange to memorize all of them separately, instead of generating them by a uniform rule. Language competence , i.e. the accumulation of a massive AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 131 unstructured body of knowledge about a language is the first stage that ensures the use of such language in communication then. When talking about intertextuality and everyday life communication, Gasparov mentions that the fact that linguistics expressions carry in their fabric recollection of and allusions to other texts has been initially explored in regard to literary texts only. He adds that while the intertextual nature of literary texts has become an axiom for literary and cultural studies, little has been done so far in exploring the role intertextuality plays in everyday communication. Intertextuality is as pervasive and as crucial in everyday language as in literary discourses. In other words, every new items, new concepts that are daily communicated should inevitably emerge out of the material provided by previous speech experience. All new facts of language usage are always grounded in and related to speakers' memory of previous experiences in using language. Speech remains primarily the product of speech . Any new communicative task, without exception, mobilizes in the speaker's mind some remembered fragments of speech that can be used one way or another, in response to the present challenge. Gasparov (ibid:15-16) 5. Intertextuality in Written Texts Again 5.1 Intertextuality and Language Creation: Different Factors Li (2009:90-91) refers to Bakhtin (1981) and says that according to the author there is no creation of language in the discourse that is not influenced by certain social groups, classes, discourses, conditions or relationships. He states it as follows: There is interwoven with ......generic stratification of language a professional stratification of language in the broad sense of the term (professional): the language of the lawyer, the doctor, the businessman, the policeman, the public education teacher and so forth and these sometimes coincides with, and sometimes depart from, the stratification into genres. At any given moment of its historical existence, language is heteroglot from top to bottom: it represents the coexistence of socioideological contradiction between the present and the past , between differing epochs of the past, between different socio ideological groups in the present, between tendencies, schools, circles and so forth, all given bodily form. These languages of heteroglossia intersect each other in a variety of ways, forming new socially typifying languages. Li (ibid:93) refers to Fairclough (2003) saying that the latter explains intertextuality as the property texts have of being full of snatches of other texts which may be explicitly demarcated or merged in and which the text AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 132 may assimilate, contradict ironically echoes and so forth. Fairclough (2003), Li (ibid) resumes, further suggests that the abstract social and discursive practices can be conceptualized in concrete forms of text by using the concept of genre, discourse and style three different but interrelated ways of acting and interacting in the course of social events which have relative stability and fixity as in interviews, for examples, He sees discourses as ways of representing aspects of the world associated with the different relations people have to the world and suggests also that the aspects or focuses of discourse and intertextual shapes and is shaped by various aspects of text organization and a range of linguistic features of text. There are specific features or aspects of text that are primarily associated with either genres or discourses or styles. Style is seen as the discoursal aspect of ways of being identities linked to the process of identificationhow people identify themselves and are identified by others. It can be construed as a special case of the representation of self through conducting certain discourse. 5.2 Press Texts And The Concept of Nation Li (2009:85-86) states that in the past two decades the concept of nation as an imagined community and a mental construct has become increasingly influential among social theorists and analysts . National culture is a discourse – a way of constructing meanings which influences and organizes both our nations and our conception of ourselves. This social constructivist vision of the nation as an imagined community denaturalizes the traditional understanding of national societies as being fixed and stable in history and society treating nations as systems of cultural representations. In the same course, Li (ibid) refers to some other previous writers saying that nationalism as a form of ideology makes nations appear natural. For nationalism to be able to occur, Li adds, certain ideological habits of thought must be reproduced daily. This supports the view of the nation as an organizational logic and regulative system that brings together and reorganizes social, cultural and political practices into meaning that people can identify with. He also mentions that meanings of national identities and ideologies can be constructed in newspaper discourse, i.e. in press. As an important social and linguistic sites , newspapers and news agencies have played a particularly important role in imagining the nation and creating nationalism . In imagined communities, Li notes, like ( a nationalist novel), press makes it possible for people to engage in national discourse and to think of themselves as a national community. This feeling of national community is produced through the mass communication of ideas in newspapers as well as the shared experience as readers and the knowledge that people in the nation are performing through reading the AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 133 same newspapers. Newspapers, Li (ibid:86) continues, can reproduce nationalist thinking through their various messages, stereotypes and deictics; they share in reminding the readers of their own homeland and invite them to think about and reflect on the meaning of the nation. Research on media discourse in the past 20 years, Li (ibid:90) adds, has largely established the media as a social and discursive institutions which regulates and organizes social life as well as the production of social knowledge, values and beliefs through linguistic means. The variations of language used in the media often constitutes particular representations of the world, social identities and relations, projecting certain versions of reality depending on the medias` institutional purposes positions and interests. 6. Press Samples Analyzed Following an eclectic model that relates between Fairclough's (2003) and Seghzzis`, (2007) the annexed sample ( the Russian plane crash) is going to be treated. The elements of social events ( the detailed event) the social actors(official, leaders or people responsible) who are investigated or interviewed, the reported speech ( direct or in direct), which is usually used by the reporters, the number of the quotation marks which render explicit the boundary between the voice of the person being reported and that of the reporter and the scare quotes, i.e. placing single words or short expressions are going to be checked. The other sample is a particular event that marked moment of crisis in Us –China relations in the 1990`s ,i.e, the NATO bombing of Chinese embassy in Yugoslavia at that time during the Kosovo War . The event had been tackled by two main newspapers. The New York Times and the Chinese Daily. The discourse of each newspaper could create meaning about both China`s and US national identities and ideologies which helped in justifying the national positions and stands taken at that time. Noticing Fairclough`s above model, that concentrates on the element of social actors, the comparison between the articles edited in both newspapers shows that there had been (9) news articles in New York Times with (31) news articles in China Daily. All the articles had been seen in the front pages of the papers owing to the importance of the event. Thus, putting any article in the front page may specify its importance and raise interest in it. The news actors quoted in the New York Times and China Daily`s reports of the bombing , can be generally classified into four groups :NATO / US officials ,Chinese leaders / officials, Chinese protesters and international officials. A comparison between comments given by the above people shows a great difference between both groups and in the AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 134 newspapers. Anyhow the event is the same event but it had been molded ,elaborated and reshaped according to the different interests, positions and attitudes of the above newspapers. Another example of intertextuality is the two articles edited by Spanish newspaper about the attack on Spanish trains in 2004. The attack was declared to be done by either ETA ( a political organization in Spain or by another side. The authorship of the above deed was to play a decisive role in the general elections to be held in Spain three days later. The intertextuality that appeared within news reports aimed at performing specific function: to pass judgment and convey a particular interpretation of the news events reported. Reporters here usually select and manipulate what other have said to suit their own purposes. The news item in the first newspaper is much longer than the other. The former contains 37 paragraphs while the latter 17. It seems that content matters more than length. The use of reported speech, direct and indirect, the use of quotation marks which render explicit the boundary between the voice of the person being reported and that of the reporter, the use of scare quotes i.e. placing single words or short expressions in quotation marks and the voices reported beginning with the Interior Minister, The King, the experts` then the terrorists` voices are used as elements of analysis in the comparison between the two articles. In details, in the first newspaper, there are (3) scare quotes (1) direct speech, (21) indirect speech to be (25) as total while in the second newspaper (8) scare quotes, (13) direct speech, 16 indirect speech are noticed to be in total as (37). It can be concluded that reporters usually include what others have said to suit their own purposes and suggest the resulting interpretations of the facts. Both above articles contain a high amount of reported speech but they differ in the form of reported speech that prevails. The first newspaper makes extensive use of the indirect speech which allows the original meaning to be reproduced according to the reporter`s intention while in the second one many more instances of direct speech and scare quotes (with various functions) are found. In both reports we can hear the voices of the three main actors of a terrorists attack. The experts could incorporate and manipulate the above voices in a way to side with their particular interpretations and intentions. All that reflects the background political ideologies of the reporters, themselves. Once again it is noticed that an event in all its details remains the same but it can be reconstructed and reproduced to meet the different aims of the producer. AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 135 Another sample of intertextuality (which is going to be treated here ) appears in recording the event of the crash of the Russian plane in Egypt on Oct.31 ST 2015. All the 224 people on broad have been killed . BBC, CNN, Middle East, New York Times, Cairo Post and Ahram Online agencies and newspapers tackled the above event in different ways. Following the analyzed commentaries on the mentioned event in the above agencies and newspapers for one day and in one article. Concerning social actors BBC mentioned three leaders or officials : Mr. Putin, Russian`s security chief and Russian military commanders. CCN almost mentioned no meeting but a study by two experts. The New York Times as quoted from the Middle East referred to the FBI some American officials, Mr. Putin and Mr. Ayman al-Muqaddam, the head of the committee responsible for investigating the crash event. Cairo Post stated the commentaries and the views of Egyptian airports and security officials, the British government and US. Officials, a top Russian officials, Deputy Prime Minister Arkdy Dvorkovich, an aviation security, Egyptian airport security, Egypt`s foreign minister, Russian tourism expert, the Russian Emergencies Ministry, the head of Russian federal tourism agency, US and British officials, the British Department for transport, an Egyptian government spokesman and Mr. Putin. While Ahram Online investigated the views of the Egyptian Minster`s office, an anonymous officer, the Egyptian Civil Aviation Minister, Mr. Putin and RIA News Agency. The above meetings and commentaries were covered through (2) pages by each of the former agencies and newspapers except the Cairo Post which allotted (6) pages for the event. It seems that the more pages allotted means the more chances to investigate the event through the use of reported speech style, direct and indirect , the use of the quotation marks and scare quotes by the reporters. Checking reported speech, it is found that the BBC used it (9) times within its twopage article, (5) direct and (4) indirect. The quotation marks were used (9) times (4) of them were scare quotes. In the Ahram Online the reported speech appeared (20) times, (9) were direct and (11) indirect. The quotation marks were exploited (6) times . No scare quotes could be noticed in the article. The New York Times used the reported speech (13) times, (10) of them were indirect and the other (3) were direct. The quotation marks appeared for (5) times and the scare quote was (1). AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 136 In the CNN article, the reported speech appeared for (3) times, (1) direct and the other (2) were indirect. The quotation marks used were (6), (4) of them were scare quotes. In the Cairo Post investigation , the reported speech happened for (27) times, (5) of them were direct and the other (22) were indirect. (10) quotation marks were noticed, (2) of them were scare quotes. The following table may sum up the details in the last samplethe crash of the Russian plane: Agency Social Actors Quotation Marks Scare Quotes Reported Speech Direct indirect BBC 3 9 4 5 4 CNN -------6 4 1 2 New York Times More than 6 5 1 3 10 Cairo Post More than 14 10 2 5 22 Ahram Online 4 6 ------9 11 7. Conclusions Recognizing what has been written earlier about intertextuality the following points are arrived at : 1. Linguists and theorists who are concerned with the matter almost agree that no text is free form other previous texts. 2. Authors in general tend to change the style of texts, i.e, the genre and not the main idea. 3. Even in everyday communication what is said or communicated is usually built upon or affected by previous ideas, factors situations or experiments that are usually shaped in advance within the mind of the producer. 4. Text producers usually employ reported discourse to detach themselves from what is said. 5. Media has a major role in forming public opinion, reflecting national identity and building human socialization. 6. Reporters try to select and manipulate what others have said to serve their own purposes. 7. In newspapers in special reported speech is considered as the most common and pervasive form of intertextuality. 8. The use of the indirect speech usually reflect what someone else has said and reflect writers' style. 9. Scare quotesanother type of reported speech are used to distance oneself from the outside voice or use its authority to support ones position. 10. The higher the number of the instances of reported speech through different voices, the larger the number of external voices are included. AL-USTATH Number extension 221– volume one 2017 AD, 1438 AH 137 11. Reporters and writers may tend to include information of experts or specialists so as to convince the reader or the listener that what is said or written is completely true that deserves to be trusted. 12. It is true that an event remains the same events, a fact remains a fact but the style or the genre used in remoulding and reshaping that would certainly have its effect on the receiver, as I believe. 13. Still little has been done so far in exploring the role intertextuality plays in everyday communication. Bibliography: 1. Bakhtin, M. ( 1986 ): " The problem of speech genres" Texas: University of Texas press. 2. Brown, S. et al(2008), " Understanding Language, structure Interaction, and variation". Us : The University of Michigan press. 3. Fairclough, N. ( 2003 )" Analysing discourse – Textual analysis for social Research" London: Routledge. 4. Gasparov, Boris ( 2010 )" Speech, memory and meaning" Walter de Grayter: GMBH. 5. Kristeva, J. (1986)" Word, dialogue and Novel" the Kristeva Reader. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 6. Li, Juan ( 2009 )" Discourse And Society" . Los Angles: SAGE Publications: London, New Delhi. 7. Seghezzi, N. A. ( 2007 ) " Intertextuality in the News, " Pompeu Fabra University. 8. Thornborrow, J. And Shan Wareing ( 1998 ). " patterns in language, An Introduction to language and literary style". London and New York Routledge. 9. Wales, K. (1989)" A Dictionary of stylistics" London and New York: Longman. 10. Worten, Michael&Judith still ( 1990 )" Intertextuality theories and practices. Ed. Michael Worton & Judith still. Appendices: Russia plane crash: 'Terror act' downed A\321 over Egvpts Sinai bbc.. Egyptian and Russian crash experts examined the debris in the Sinai desert


Definition and nature of the term
Intertextuality can be defined as utterances / texts in relation to other utterances/ texts, Wales (ibid) argues that the term was introduced first into French criticism in the late 1960s by Kristeva in her discussion and elaboration of the ideas of Bakhtin especially his general dialogue principle. Transtexuality is another term that is found sometimes as an equivalent term to intertextuality. Kristeva has argued that every text is under the jurisdiction of other discourse, and that imitation and translation should also be considered as forms of creative splitting which function both as temporary proofs of the integrity of the writing subject and as trasgressive inscriptions of (feminine) fluidity into textuality. Bakhtin, cited in Worton et al (1990:15) argues that when people speak they use a specific mix of discourse which they have appropriated in an attempt to communicate their intentions. However, Bakhtin adds, they inevitably suffer interference from two sources: words` pre-existing meaning and the alien intention of a real interlocutor (as opposed to the perfect understanding of a super addressee). Writers of literature can attempt artificially to strip language of others` intentions, a unifying project which Bakhtin calls monologism or poetry .
Genre , for example, can be considered as an intertextual concept : a poem written in the genre of a sonnet conforms to conventions that belong to a particular tradition inherited by the poet and which are also perhaps being exploited by the poet`s contemporaries. When Shakespeare writes :"my mistress eyes are nothing like the sun" (sonnet130), as a narrator he is reacting against the convention sonnet (Conceits) in a kind of interactive dialogue , conceits which his readers also must know about . For the reader, therefore, intertextuality functions as an important Frame of Reference which helps in the Interpretation of a text. The term may be a process of borrowing which is a more obvious process that shades into a form of phrase in Poetic Diction e.g. (funny tribe); a quotation or allusion or titles( as in Wild`s A little Sincerity is a dangerous thing ) or titles like Brave New World) or insertion (as in Eliot`s The Wasteland); or structural models. Intertextuality should not be mixed with intersubjectivity, which sometimes used as an alternative of the first. It essentially concerns the relations a text has with wider or vaguer spheres of knowledge which the reader must draw upon for a shared knowledge between the interactants. Worton et al (1990:1) in their introduction believe that the theory of intertextuality first introduced by Julia Kristeva (mentioned earlier) insists that a text cannot exist as a hermetic closed system and this is for two reasons: firstly the writer is a reader of texts in the broadest sense, before s/he is a creator of texts and therefore, the work of art is inevitably shot through with references, quotations and influences of every kind . Here, the authors give an example and say that Rousseau does not entitle his autobiography(the confessions) in ignorance of church practices or of St Augustine`s work of the same name. This repetition of past or of contemporary texts can range from the most conscious and sophisticated elaboration of other poets` work , to a scholarly use of sources , or the quotation conversational snatches at a certain historical moment.
Secondly, the authors (ibid)continue , a text is available only through some process of reading: what is produced at the moment of reading is due to the cross-fertilization of the packaged textual material (a book) by all the texts which the reader brings to it. Worton et al (ibid:19) extract the following from previous writers who were concerned with intertextuality to show that the term is used in the sense that a text may appear to be the spontaneous and transparent expression of a writers` intentions, but must necessarily contain elements of other sources: [ It is impossible to develop my selected mode of writing Within duration without gradually becoming a prisoner of someone else`s words and even my own . A stubborn after-image which comes from all the previous modes of writing and even from the past of my own drowns the sound of my present words. Any written trace , innocent and neutral mere duration gradually reveals in suspension a whole past of increasing density, like a cryptogram.] Thornborrow et al (1998:171-172) call the process of intertextuality as a kind of (collage) and (allusing) . This was also happening in the paintings of that time. Braque, for example, incorporated strips of wallpaper into his work. T. S. Eliot`s poem (The Waste Land)is constructed to quite a considerable extent from pieces of other texts including works by Shakespeare Webster, Goldsmith and Dante, extracts form the Bible and form Wagner`s Opera (Tristan and Isold). In Eliot`s case, this was in part because he was identifying his poetry with the tradition of European literature , from medieval poets like Chaucer and Dante to the late nineteenth century ones like Baudelaire. It was as if he were claiming that literature is like a relay race and that he was the appropriate person to take up the baton in the twentieth century. For Eliot and others, Thornborrow et al (ibid), the use of allusion to other works of literature was a way of exploring twentiethcentury life and meaning in relation to the cultures which had gone beforethe myths, religious and secular, on which Western Culture is found. Allen (2000) in his introduction sees intertextuality as a dominant idea with literary and cultural studies ,taken up by practically every theoretical movement. Yet the phenomenon remains a subject of such a diversity of interpretations and is defined so variously, that is anything but a transparent, commonly understood term. ( 2006:101-4) relates the term to the change in discourse, structuring and the restructuring of orders of such discourse. Bakhtin , cited in Fairclough (ibid), points that to the relative neglect of the communicative functions of language within main stream linguistics and more specially to the neglect of ways in which texts and utterances are shaped by prior texts that they are responding to and by subsequent texts that they anticipate . For Bakhtin , all utterances, of spoken and written from the briefest of turns in a conversation to a scientific paper or a novel , are demarcated by a change of speaker(or writer), and are oriented retrospectively to the utterances of previous speakers. Texts are so intertextual for Bakhtin, Fairclough (ibid) adds that all words of others carry with them their own expression , their own evaluative tone which we assimilate rework and reaccentuate. Thus it seems that almost all new texts are in a way or another, copies of certain original ones either in design , structure or type of genre.

Fairclough
The other forms of intertextuality ,for Brown et al (ibid.) are less obscure and include footnotes ,references, and other scholarly forms of citation of sources ,yet other forms of intertextuality have been codified as (genres). Genres, referred to earlier in (1) , are literary forms that share a given set of characteristics , both formal and content based) such a Parody which consists in taking a text and rewriting it keeping either the form or the content unchanged or (minimally so) and introducing changes (again either formal or related to the content of the text that ridicule the work or the author). Here, the phenomenon may be used as a kind of intended scorn or humiliation of the piece of writing or the writer himself through at least changing the title, for example, into something near.

Intertextuality As Allusions
Allusions ,mentioned earlier as a type of borrowing are for, Brown et al (2008:24) references to other usually well-known texts or events that the speaker does not have to repeat in detail but can leave implicit. Such allusions fall under the banner of intertextuality, which can be simply defined as all the references among texts or part of them . For example, T.S.Eliot`s (The Love Song) starts with a citation (In Italian) from Dante`s (Divine Comedy) and specially from the( Inferno) . A citation is an explicit form of intertextual relationship (the author of a text "borrows" a part of another text, which in this case also works as an allusion (it is not explicitly identified as being Dante`s text) and moreover as a symbol of the "hellish" situation in which Prufrock finds himself.

Intertextuality , Discourse and Social Change
Fairclough (ibid:102) continues his description of intertextuality saying that there is a relation between discourse and social change . He observes that Kristeva (1986:39) believes that intertextuality should imply the insertion of history (society) into a text. By that she means that the text absorbs and is built out of texts, from the past (texts being the major artifacts that constitute history. By the insertion of the text into history Fairclough (ibid) adds, Kristeva sees that the text responds to restructure and rework past texts and in so doing helps to make history and contributes to wider processes of change as well as anticipating and trying to shape subsequent texts. This inherent historicity of texts enables them to take on the major roles that they have in contemporary society at the leading edge of social and cultural change. The rapid transformation and restructuring of textual traditions and orders of discourse is a striking contemporary phenomenon which suggests that intertextuality ought to be a major focus in discourse analysis.

Intertextuality and Hegemony
Fairclough (ibid:102-3) relates between intertextuality and hegemony (a theory of power) and says that the above concept points to the productivity of texts , to how texts can transform prior texts and restructure existing convention (genres, discourses) to generate new ones . But this productivity is not in practice available to people as a limited and constrained and conditional upon relations of power. It is the power and impact of social relations upon people that can shape new innovated texts. Thus , the theory, for Fairclough (ibid), cannot itself account for these social limitations without being combined with a theory of power

Intertextuality and Conventions
Fairclough (ibid) speaks here about intertextuality and conventions saying that in addition to incorporating or otherwise responding to other texts, the new text can be seen as incorporating the potentially complex relationships it has with the conventions (genres, discourses, styles, activity types ) which are structural together to constitute an order of discourse. Bakhtin, says Fairclough, notes that texts may not only draw straightforward upon the noted conventions, but may also (re accentuate) them by, for example, using them ironically periodically or reverently or may mix them in various way.
Fairclough (ibid:117) mentions that manifest intertextuality is the case where specific other texts are overtly drawn upon within a text. He discusses the matter in relation to discourse representation, presupposition negation, meta discourse and irony. Concerning discourse representation he mentions that when one reports discourse one necessarily chooses to represent it in one way rather than another and also what is represented is not just speech but also writing . Discourse types differ not only in the way in which they represent and the functions of discourse in the representing texts.
Presuppositions (as propositions taken by the producer of the text) are seen as a way of incorporating the texts of others and an effective way to manipulate people because they are often difficult to challenge. For example, an interviewee in a media interview who challenges a presupposition in a question from the interviewer can easily appear to be dodging the issue and in so doing the ideological constitution of subjects may be rebuilt.
Concerning negative, Fairclough (ibid:121-22), believes that negative sentences are often used for polemical purposes . They carry special types of presupposition which also work as intertextuality. He gives us the following newspaper headline as an example: "I didn`t murder squealer. Robbery trial man hits out" This negative first sentence presupposes the proposition in some other text, that the person quoted here did murder a squealer (police informant).
Intertextuality may be manifested in irony ( saying one thing and meaning another). Such an explanation is of limited utility because what it misses is the intertextual nature of irony the fact that an ironic utterance echoes someone else`s utterance. Thus, uttering something like "it is a lovely day for a picnic" then it rains and I return to say also "it is a lovely day for a picnic" . Here, the last utterance seems "ironic " . It is right it echoes the first one but there is disparity between the meaning for the real function of the last is to show negative attitude , anger or a sort of sarcasm. But here, Fairclough (ibid:123), show that irony depends upon interpreters and their ability to recognize that the meaning of an echoed text is not the text producers` meaning.
Meta discourse is , for fairclough (ibid) another peculiar form of manifest intertextuality where the text producer distinguishes different levels within the same text and distances herself / himself from some level of the text treating the distanced level as if it were another external text. The use of Hedging with expressions such as (sort of, kind of , may mark that . Metadiscourse implies that the speaker is situated above or outside her own discourse and is in a position to control and manipulate it. Fairclough (ibid) returns to display a French discourse analysis idea saying that the distinction between intertextual relations of texts to specific other texts and intertextual relations of texts to conventions is linked to another distinction and that is manifest as opposed to constitutive intertextuality . In manifest intertextuality , other texts are explicitly present in text under analysis , they are manifestly marked or cued by features on the surface of the text, such as quotation marks. Also , a text may incorporate another text without the latter being explicitly cued: one can respond to another text in the way of wording. The constitutive intertextuality of a text, however, Fairclough resumes, is the configuration of discourse conventions that go into its production.

Intertextuality and the Heterogenety
Intertextuality entails an emphasis upon the hetrogenity of texts and a mode of analysis which highlights the diverse and often contradictory elements and threads which go on to make up a text. Texts vary a great deal in their degrees of heterogeneity depending upon whether their intertextual relations are complex or simple. Texts also differ in the extent to which their heterogenous elements are integrated and so in the extent to which their heterogenety is evident on the surface of the text. Thus a heterogeneous text may have an uneven and bumpy textual surface or relatively smooth one. Fairclough (ibid:104) .

Interdiscursivity as Constitutive Intertextuality
Fairclough (ibid:124) mentions the principle of interdiscursivity by suggesting that orders of discourse have primacy over particular types of discourse and that the latter are constituted as configurations of diverse elements of orders of discourse . The above principle applies at various levels: the societal order of discourse, the discourse type and even the above elements can range from turn -taking systems to vocabulary , scripts for genres such as crime reports, sets of politeness conventions and so forth. Such elements can also be classified in terms of a small number of major types of which particular vocabularies, turn taking systems and so forth.
The above types include :genre, style, register and discourse. One may talk here about intertextuality genre, conversational style, the register of cookery books or scientific medical discourse.

Intertextuality in Transformed Texts
Building on Kristeva 1986 Fairclough (ibid:130) mentions that particular practices within and across institutions have associated within them particular intertextual chains, series of types of texts which are transformational related to each other in the sense that each member of the series is transformed into one or more of the others in regular and predictable ways . These chains are sequential or syntagmatic in contrast to the paradigmatic intertextual relations or as called inter discursivity . Fairclough here, gives us an example and mentions the chain which links medical consultations with medical records: doctors routinely transform the former into the latter. Also, intertextual chains can be quite complex especially those that concern the texts of international diplomacy and arms negotiations for example. Thus a certain political speech may be transformed into media texts of various types in different countries .It may be changed into reports, analyzed and commented on by different diplomats. It may be elaborated or paraphrased to take different transformed types.

Intertextuality and Language Use
Nearly all the points mentioned earlier in this work deal with the subject intertextuality as written texts. In what follows, the phenomenon as usageoriented-process is going to be tackled taking into consideration that language is speech and oral usage in origin.
According to Gasparov (2010:1) language can be looked at through the umbrella name of (cognitive linguistics) as usage oriented process. Language should be considered as speech activity before all . It is a new understanding of language. Thus intertextuality can be realized also through speech and not necessarily through written materials as has been mentioned earlier. Speech can be considered as an intertextual activity : speakers always build something new by infusing it with their recollection of textual fragments drawn from previous instances of speech. The mental work involved in this process, shifting frames, blending conceptual domains, making analogical extensions is not purely conceptual: it is grounded in and intermingled with tangible pieces of textual matter that are in speakers` possess issue, it always bears the imprint of the language matter of language used in process. The speaker`s creative will make these pieces of language matter pliant; it alters, mixes, and reinterpret them, accommodating them to the speaker`s intention. Gasparov (ibid:4) sums up the above and says that all cognitive operations with language are intertextual in their nature. A conventional unit of language is a thing first and foremost -a tangible piece of experience kept by memory. It can be schematized , blended with other pieces, analogically stretched, reframed; yet in all these cognitive operations it preserves what is inalienable feature of any tangible object-its textual. So, the intertextual model of language usage can be understood as a part of the usageoriented approach that highlights the impact of unique textures of remembered fragments of speech on cognitive operations with language.

Intertextuality and Speech Context
Gasparov (ibid) mentions the following example for the purpose of showing the role of the texture of speech fragments in cognitive operations with language , to know the effect of context on getting the intended meaning by the speaker.
" The mushroom omelet left without paying." The mentioned example, Gasparov says, is a vivid illustration of speakers` creativity in dealing with language. Grasping the intention here involves an effort of imagination that could be neither prescribed by any set of rules. It is the cognitive `genius 'of the speaker and the addressee that enables them to create and comprehend such an intelligent conceptual blending. To reach that ,one should know who might say this, to whom, under what circumstances and for what purposes.
The subject matter (The mushroom omelet) in the above example suggests its scene that should be imagined and it is certainly some kind of restaurant. What matters here is the touch of intertextuality found and through the different facets of meaning that can be grasped. One cannot think at all that the mushroom omelet can get up from the table and slip a way . A scene like that should seem comic and un acceptable. Also, any customers who are expected to be there in the supposed restaurant would not refer to another clients in that way. So, it is certainly a perceivable feature of waiters` discourse when they identify people with the food they eat for the sake of brevity with the adding of a slight touch of mockery to the scene. Not only that but a waiter / waitress may express his/ her hurt or anxiety for the loss of the money that should be paid by the client meant. This new meaning may be realized through the sharp tone uttered by those waiters the intonation with which the sentence could be uttered the tempo of speech and the emotional timbre of the speakers` voice.
So, (The mushroom omelet) remains (The mushroom omelet) , i.e. the original text, phrase or sentence keeps as it is, but may include different intentions according to context or the way of utterance. This is considered as another face of intertextuality.

Memory and Intertextuality
Still and according to Gasparov (2010:14) the usageoriented approach to language is an approach that is memory oriented and time oriented. Our language is not a phenomenon to be grasped once and forever; it is a continuous lifelong occupation. If we had needed certain word forms or words combinations only once, it would have been strange to memorize all of them separately, instead of generating them by a uniform rule. Language competence , i.e. the accumulation of a massive unstructured body of knowledge about a language is the first stage that ensures the use of such language in communication then.
When talking about intertextuality and everyday life communication, Gasparov mentions that the fact that linguistics expressions carry in their fabric recollection of and allusions to other texts has been initially explored in regard to literary texts only. He adds that while the intertextual nature of literary texts has become an axiom for literary and cultural studies, little has been done so far in exploring the role intertextuality plays in everyday communication.
Intertextuality is as pervasive and as crucial in everyday language as in literary discourses. In other words, every new items, new concepts that are daily communicated should inevitably emerge out of the material provided by previous speech experience. All new facts of language usage are always grounded in and related to speakers' memory of previous experiences in using language. Speech remains primarily the product of speech . Any new communicative task, without exception, mobilizes in the speaker's mind some remembered fragments of speech that can be used one way or another, in response to the present challenge.

Intertextuality in Written Texts Again 5.1 Intertextuality and Language Creation: Different Factors
Li (2009:90-91) refers to Bakhtin (1981) and says that according to the author there is no creation of language in the discourse that is not influenced by certain social groups, classes, discourses, conditions or relationships. He states it as follows: There is interwoven with ……generic stratification of language a professional stratification of language in the broad sense of the term (professional): the language of the lawyer, the doctor, the businessman, the policeman, the public education teacher and so forth and these sometimes coincides with, and sometimes depart from, the stratification into genres. At any given moment of its historical existence, language is heteroglot from top to bottom: it represents the coexistence of socio-ideological contradiction between the present and the past , between differing epochs of the past, between different socio -ideological groups in the present, between tendencies, schools, circles and so forth, all given bodily form. These languages of heteroglossia intersect each other in a variety of ways, forming new socially typifying languages.
Li (ibid:93) refers to Fairclough (2003) saying that the latter explains intertextuality as the property texts have of being full of snatches of other texts which may be explicitly demarcated or merged in and which the text may assimilate, contradict ironically echoes and so forth. Fairclough (2003), Li (ibid) resumes, further suggests that the abstract social and discursive practices can be conceptualized in concrete forms of text by using the concept of genre, discourse and style three different but interrelated ways of acting and interacting in the course of social events which have relative stability and fixity as in interviews, for examples, He sees discourses as ways of representing aspects of the world associated with the different relations people have to the world and suggests also that the aspects or focuses of discourse and intertextual shapes and is shaped by various aspects of text organization and a range of linguistic features of text. There are specific features or aspects of text that are primarily associated with either genres or discourses or styles. Style is seen as the discoursal aspect of ways of being identities linked to the process of identification-how people identify themselves and are identified by others. It can be construed as a special case of the representation of self through conducting certain discourse. Li (2009:85-86) states that in the past two decades the concept of nation as an imagined community and a mental construct has become increasingly influential among social theorists and analysts . National culture is a discoursea way of constructing meanings which influences and organizes both our nations and our conception of ourselves. This social constructivist vision of the nation as an imagined community denaturalizes the traditional understanding of national societies as being fixed and stable in history and society treating nations as systems of cultural representations.

Press Texts And The Concept of Nation
In the same course, Li (ibid) refers to some other previous writers saying that nationalism as a form of ideology makes nations appear natural. For nationalism to be able to occur, Li adds, certain ideological habits of thought must be reproduced daily. This supports the view of the nation as an organizational logic and regulative system that brings together and reorganizes social, cultural and political practices into meaning that people can identify with.
He also mentions that meanings of national identities and ideologies can be constructed in newspaper discourse, i.e. in press. As an important social and linguistic sites , newspapers and news agencies have played a particularly important role in imagining the nation and creating nationalism . In imagined communities, Li notes, like ( a nationalist novel), press makes it possible for people to engage in national discourse and to think of themselves as a national community. This feeling of national community is produced through the mass communication of ideas in newspapers as well as the shared experience as readers and the knowledge that people in the nation are performing through reading the same newspapers. Newspapers, Li (ibid:86) continues, can reproduce nationalist thinking through their various messages, stereotypes and deictics; they share in reminding the readers of their own homeland and invite them to think about and reflect on the meaning of the nation. Research on media discourse in the past 20 years, Li (ibid:90) adds, has largely established the media as a social and discursive institutions which regulates and organizes social life as well as the production of social knowledge, values and beliefs through linguistic means. The variations of language used in the media often constitutes particular representations of the world, social identities and relations, projecting certain versions of reality depending on the medias` institutional purposes positions and interests.

Press Samples Analyzed
Following an eclectic model that relates between Fairclough's (2003) and Seghzzis`, (2007) the annexed sample ( the Russian plane crash) is going to be treated. The elements of social events ( the detailed event) the social actors(official, leaders or people responsible) who are investigated or interviewed, the reported speech ( direct or in direct), which is usually used by the reporters, the number of the quotation marks which render explicit the boundary between the voice of the person being reported and that of the reporter and the scare quotes, i.e. placing single words or short expressions are going to be checked. The other sample is a particular event that marked moment of crisis in Us -China relations in the 1990`s ,i.e, the NATO bombing of Chinese embassy in Yugoslavia at that time during the Kosovo War . The event had been tackled by two main newspapers. The New York Times and the Chinese Daily. The discourse of each newspaper could create meaning about both China`s and US national identities and ideologies which helped in justifying the national positions and stands taken at that time.
Noticing Fairclough`s above model, that concentrates on the element of social actors, the comparison between the articles edited in both newspapers shows that there had been (9) news articles in New York Times with (31) news articles in China Daily. All the articles had been seen in the front pages of the papers owing to the importance of the event. Thus, putting any article in the front page may specify its importance and raise interest in it. The news actors quoted in the New York Times and China Daily`s reports of the bombing , can be generally classified into four groups :NATO / US officials ,Chinese leaders / officials, Chinese protesters and international officials. A comparison between comments given by the above people shows a great difference between both groups and in the newspapers. Anyhow the event is the same event but it had been molded ,elaborated and reshaped according to the different interests, positions and attitudes of the above newspapers.
Another example of intertextuality is the two articles edited by Spanish newspaper about the attack on Spanish trains in 2004. The attack was declared to be done by either ETA ( a political organization in Spain or by another side. The authorship of the above deed was to play a decisive role in the general elections to be held in Spain three days later. The intertextuality that appeared within news reports aimed at performing specific function: to pass judgment and convey a particular interpretation of the news events reported. Reporters here usually select and manipulate what other have said to suit their own purposes. The news item in the first newspaper is much longer than the other. The former contains 37 paragraphs while the latter 17. It seems that content matters more than length. The use of reported speech, direct and indirect, the use of quotation marks which render explicit the boundary between the voice of the person being reported and that of the reporter, the use of scare quotes i.e. placing single words or short expressions in quotation marks and the voices reported beginning with the Interior Minister, The King, the experts` then the terrorists` voices are used as elements of analysis in the comparison between the two articles. In details, in the first newspaper, there are (3) scare quotes (1) direct speech, (21) indirect speech to be (25) as total while in the second newspaper (8) scare quotes, (13) direct speech, 16 indirect speech are noticed to be in total as (37).
It can be concluded that reporters usually include what others have said to suit their own purposes and suggest the resulting interpretations of the facts. Both above articles contain a high amount of reported speech but they differ in the form of reported speech that prevails. The first newspaper makes extensive use of the indirect speech which allows the original meaning to be reproduced according to the reporter`s intention while in the second one many more instances of direct speech and scare quotes (with various functions) are found. In both reports we can hear the voices of the three main actors of a terrorists attack. The experts could incorporate and manipulate the above voices in a way to side with their particular interpretations and intentions. All that reflects the background political ideologies of the reporters, themselves. Once again it is noticed that an event in all its details remains the same but it can be reconstructed and reproduced to meet the different aims of the producer.
Another sample of intertextuality (which is going to be treated here ) appears in recording the event of the crash of the Russian plane in Egypt on Oct.31 ST 2015. All the 224 people on broad have been killed . BBC, CNN, Middle East, New York Times, Cairo Post and Ahram Online agencies and newspapers tackled the above event in different ways. Following the analyzed commentaries on the mentioned event in the above agencies and newspapers for one day and in one article. Concerning social actors BBC mentioned three leaders or officials : Mr. Putin, Russian`s security chief and Russian military commanders. CCN almost mentioned no meeting but a study by two experts. The New York Times as quoted from the Middle East referred to the FBI some American officials, Mr. Putin and Mr. Ayman al-Muqaddam, the head of the committee responsible for investigating the crash event. Cairo Post stated the commentaries and the views of Egyptian airports and security officials, the British government and US. Officials, a top Russian officials, Deputy Prime Minister Arkdy Dvorkovich, an aviation security, Egyptian airport security, Egypt`s foreign minister, Russian tourism expert, the Russian Emergencies Ministry, the head of Russian federal tourism agency, US and British officials, the British Department for transport, an Egyptian government spokesman and Mr. Putin. While Ahram Online investigated the views of the Egyptian Minster`s office, an anonymous officer, the Egyptian Civil Aviation Minister, Mr. Putin and RIA News Agency.
The above meetings and commentaries were covered through (2) pages by each of the former agencies and newspapers except the Cairo Post which allotted (6) pages for the event. It seems that the more pages allotted means the more chances to investigate the event through the use of reported speech style, direct and indirect , the use of the quotation marks and scare quotes by the reporters.
Checking reported speech, it is found that the BBC used it (9) times within its two-page article, (5) direct and (4) indirect. The quotation marks were used (9) times (4) of them were scare quotes.
In the Ahram Online the reported speech appeared (20) times, (9) were direct and (11) indirect. The quotation marks were exploited (6) times . No scare quotes could be noticed in the article.
The New York Times used the reported speech (13) times, (10) of them were indirect and the other (3) were direct. The quotation marks appeared for (5) times and the scare quote was (1).
In the CNN article, the reported speech appeared for (3) times, (1) direct and the other (2) were indirect. The quotation marks used were (6), (4) of them were scare quotes.
In the Cairo Post investigation , the reported speech happened for (27) times, (5) of them were direct and the other (22) were indirect. (10) quotation marks were noticed, (2) of them were scare quotes.
The following table may sum up the details in the last sample-the crash of the Russian plane:

Conclusions
Recognizing what has been written earlier about intertextuality the following points are arrived at : 1. Linguists and theorists who are concerned with the matter almost agree that no text is free form other previous texts. 2. Authors in general tend to change the style of texts, i.e, the genre and not the main idea. 3. Even in everyday communication what is said or communicated is usually built upon or affected by previous ideas, factors situations or experiments that are usually shaped in advance within the mind of the producer. 4. Text producers usually employ reported discourse to detach themselves from what is said. 5. Media has a major role in forming public opinion, reflecting national identity and building human socialization. 6. Reporters try to select and manipulate what others have said to serve their own purposes. 7. In newspapers in special reported speech is considered as the most common and pervasive form of intertextuality. 8. The use of the indirect speech usually reflect what someone else has said and reflect writers' style. 9. Scare quotes-another type of reported speech are used to distance oneself from the outside voice or use its authority to support ones position. 10. The higher the number of the instances of reported speech through different voices, the larger the number of external voices are included.
11. Reporters and writers may tend to include information of experts or specialists so as to convince the reader or the listener that what is said or written is completely true that deserves to be trusted. 12. It is true that an event remains the same events, a fact remains a fact but the style or the genre used in remoulding and reshaping that would certainly have its effect on the receiver, as I believe. 13. Still little has been done so far in exploring the role intertextuality plays in everyday communication. Russia's security chief says an act of-terror brought down the Russian A321 airliner in Egypt last month killing all 224 people on board "Traces of foreign explosives" were found on debris from the Airbus plane, FSB chief Alexander Bortnikov told Russian President Vladimir Putin.

Bibliography
Mr. Putin vowed to "find and punish" those behind the attack over the Sinai peninsula.
A branch of so-called Islamic State said it downed the plane.
Nearly all the dead were Russians.
Mr. Bortnikov said a bomb had been planted on board the Metrojet plane, equivalent to up to 1kg of TNT. The Kremlin website carried a transcript of the meeting.
The bomb shattered the plane mid-air on 31. October, he said, "which expl-ains the wide disoersal of fuselage pieces." Mr. Putin said that Russia must hunt those responsible "indefinitely, find out who the individuals were." "We,ll look for them everywhere , wherever they are hiding. We'll find them in any corner of the planet and punish them".
Russian plane crash: What we know Russia has offered a $50m (£33m) reward for information on the Sinai plane attackers.
,. Sinai Province, a branch of Islamic State (IS), said in a statement on 31 October that it had destroyed the plane because of Russian air strikes in Syria.
IS also said it was responsible for the multiple shootings and bombings in Paris on Friday night which killed 129 people and wounded hundreds more.

Heavier Russian raids
Most of the A321 passengers were Russian tourists flying home from the Red Sea resort of Sharm el-Sheikh.
Metrojet is the brand name of Kogalymavia, an airline based in western Siberia.
Mr Putin said that Russia's air strikes in Syria "must not only be continued -they must be intensified so that the criminals understand that retribution is inevitable." Russian warplanes are supporting Syrian government forces against various rebel groups, including IS and other Isla mists.
-Russia's military commanders were also at the meeting with Mr. Putin and the Federal Security Service (FSB) chief.

Egypt president under pressure -BBC's Orla Guerin in Cairo:
The Russian statement that a bomb ripped apart the plane will surprise few, but it will be deeply damaging to Egypt's image, its tourist industry and its president, Abdul Fattah al-Sisi.
The former army chief sold himself to the nation and the world. As a leader who could bring order after chaos.
Instead, a virulent branch of Islamic State has been able to take root on his own doorstep, in the Sinai peninsula _ in spite of a major military offensive.
Even after the crash, in a BBC interview, President Sisi claimed -implausibly -to have "full control" over Sinai. Instead, attackers were able to slaughter more than 200 Russian tourists.
The last thing a Middle Eastern strongman can afford is to look weak. But the wreckage of Flight 9268 is proof of President Sisi's vulnerability, and of the growing strength and reach of lslamlst extremists in the Arab world's most populous nation.
Mr. Putin was speaking after separate meetings at the G20 summit in Turkey, with US President Barack Obama on Sunday, and UK Prime Minister David Cameron on Monday.
The Syrian conflict was the focus of their talks. Mr. Cameron pressed Mr. Putin to direct air strikes against IS, and not at moderate rebe.l groups fighting President Bashar al-Assad's troops.
Commenting later on the G20 talks, Mr. Cameron said everybody recognised the need for compromise and Russian opinion was changing.
think there are some signs, some signs, that they are focusing more on lsi! (IS) but we need to see that continued," the prime minister said.
The Sinai Province militants have operated in northern Sinai for two years, attacking Egyptian security forces, hundreds of whom have died in the violence. The group has claimed responsibility for bringing down the jet, but Russian and Egyptian officials have dismissed that claim.
ISNS' focus of operations has been the area around al-Arish on the Mediterranean, a long way from Sharm el-Sheikh. But "Wilayat Sinai," as ISNS is called, has previously shown itself able to strike beyond the northern.desert. In August, it claimed 'responsibility for the beheading of a Croatian engineer, Tomislav Salopek, in the western desert on the other side of Cairo, and posted photographic evidence of his killing. (There was, however, some speculation that a criminal gang had abducted Salopek and handed him over to ISNS(. The Islamic State in Northern Sinai -(las also shown itself capable of complex operations, including the successful targeting of an Egyptian naval vessel in the Mediterranean with a Russian-made Kornet anti-tank missile, and a multipronged attack in July on the town of Sheikh Zuweid in Sinai that left many soldiers and police dead. The official count was 23; other estimates were higher.
ISNS --which also uses IEDs and vehicle-borne suicide bombs against Egyptian security forces --has proved repeatedly that it knows to handle explosives. It has benefited from the flow of weapons from Libya, where Moammar Gadhafi's arsenals have been handed by a variety of groups and shipped in every direction.
ISIS has not carried out attacks as far south as Sharm el-Sheikh, where security to protect the important tourist resorts is high. But terrorism in Egypt has reached beyond Sinai this year, as far as the capital, Cairo. A huge bomb was detonated outside the Italian consulate in July --later claimed in the name of the Islamic state.Twelve days previously, Egypt's attorney general was assassinated in a car bomb attack. That attack was claimed by a little known group called the Giza Popular Resistance, evidence that there are other actors in Egypt besides ISNS.
Several crude bomb attacks in February were claimed by similarly obscure groups, who would seem unlikely to have the expertise to get a device onto a commercial plane at the other end of Egypt. Some of these attacks may have been the work of jihadist cells in the Nile Valley, which see themselves as independent actors supportive of ISIS, rather than belonging to the Sinai branch.
According to a recent study by Mokhtar Awad and Samuel Tadros in the combating Terrorism Center journal, Sentinel, "New recruits traveled to Sinai to receive weapons and explosives training, while a few others briefly joined the Syrian jihad before returning with urban combat skills and experience".
There is also the growing threat from Islamic State wilayat (or provinces) in neighboring Libya, which the Egyptian air force has occasionally targeted.
. . is al Qaeda extinct in Egypt (its leader, Ayman al Zawahiri, is Egyptian). A group called AI Mourabitoun declared its allegiance to Zawahiri earlier this year and is suspected of carrying out an attempted suicide attack at the Karnak Temple in Luxor in June. The group is led by a former Egyptian special forces veteran, Hisham Ashmawy.
There is, then, no shortage of jihadist groups within Egypt or neighboring countries. All will have been angered by Russia's intervention in Syria. The question is which of them has the resources and sophistication to penetrate airport security with an explosive device and smuggle it on board an aircraft.

Planes the 'Holy Grail'
Many jihadist groups would have both the motive and desire to attack a passenger airliner. AI Qaeda is the only one with a track record of doing so in recent years, although female Chechen suicide bombers brought down two Russian airliners almost simultaneously in 2004 Very difficult to 'roll back' terrorism narrative 06:42 The 9/11 attacks demonstrated that for al Qaeda, hijacking and/or blowing up civilian planes was a priority. In 2002, two shoulder fired anti-aircraft missiles were fired at an Israeli airliner as it took off from Mombasa, Kenya. The plane was not hit.
There followed a variety of plots in Asia and Europe --all thwarted --before the emergence of al Oaeda in the Arabian Peninsula 'und its master bomb-maker, Ibrahim al-Asiri, He was responsible for the "underwear" bomb that threatened a U;S. airliner during its descent to Detroit on Christmas Day 2009. AI-Asiri is also thought to have designed more sophisticated devices in 2010 disguised inside printers and loaded as freight in Sanaa, Yemen, bound for the United States. A tip-off from the Saudi authorities led to the discovery of the bombs, one of which had already been shipped as far as the United Kingdom.
AQAP has repeated its goal of targeting U.S. interests in the Middle East and further afield. Now, Russian President Vladimir Putin's intervention in Syria --where the Russian air force has targeted al Qaeda affiliate Jabhat al Nusra, among other groups -may well ' make Russian targets as much a priority for al Qaeda affiliates.
There is also some evidence of an AQAP presence in or connection with Egypt. A raid by Egyptian security forces in Cairo three years ago led to the recovery of a computer belonging to Muhammad Jamal al Kashef, on which he had addressed messages to al Qaeda leader Avrnan al Zawahiri. In' one he mentioned he had "received an amount of money from our brothers in Yemen," and talked of his long-standing relationship with AQAP's leadership. Jamal is now in an Egyptian jail.

Economic damage
The choice of a vacation destination such as Sharm el-Sheikh would also appeal to terrorist groups as a high-profile attack on both the income and image of a country ruled by what they would describe as an "apostate regime." Hence the two attacks against tourists in Tunisia this year, both claimed by ISIS-associated groups, as well as attacks in Casablanca (2007) andMarrakesh (2011) in Morocco.
There have also been terror attacks and plots against the tourist industry in Egypt in the last decade, including Sharm el-Sheikh. In July 105, 88 people were killed by three bombs detonated in Sharm. The Egyptian authorities blamed radicalized Bedouin tribesmen working with Isla mist militants for the bombings. Many Bedouin tribes in Sinai complain of neglect and heavy-handed security; some of the younger generation have turned to militant groups, according to,Quman rights groups. Sinai is also infamous for the smuggling of everything from weapons to cigarettes to would-be migrants.
Last year, a suicide bomber attacked a tourist bus in Taba, killing three South Koreans. That attack was claimed by Ansar Beit al Maqdis, which later in 2014 became the Islamic State in North Sinai. And it was a sign that the group could act beyond its north Sinai heartland.
ISNS has also shown a budding interest in targeting the fragile Egyptian economy by killing foreign workers. Before Salopek was killed, an American citizen, William Henderson, was gunned down in an apparent car-jacking. Months later, Ansar Beit al Maqdis published photographs of Henderson's passport and other ID cards, claiming it had killed him.
would it become clear that the Metrojet flight was brought down by a bomb, there will be no shortage of suspects or motives.
AS Tadros and Awad conclude in their CTC study, "The ever entrepreneurial al Qaeda and the 'core' leadership of the Islamic State are unlikely to overlook Egypt --the fountainhead of Islamism and the most populous Arab country --when it holds so much promise in advancing both groups' global projects."

MIDDLE EAST
The new york times . In this case, Russia's reaching out to the Americans could serve geopolitical interests. The Russian president, Vladimir ,. Putin. has been trying to leverage the issue of terrorism, and the global threat it represents, to end the isolation and sanctions imposed by the West over the Ukraine crisis. His military intervention in Syria, while addressing a potential problem for Russia given the more than 5 , 000 Russians estimated to be fighting there with Islamic State militants, was also seen as an attempt to be accepted as a global partner in tackling terrorism.
While it is possible that Russia needs the F.B.L's experience to help solve the mystery of the crash, the Kremlin may have seen the cooperation as another opportunity to be engaged as a partner. investigators were focusing on a sound heard in the last second of a 23-minute cockpit voice recording. But he insisted that it was still premature to consider any specific explanations. He did not elaborate on the sound on the recording and emphasized that all possibilities were being considered. When asked specifically what was being looked at, Mr. Myqaddam listed as possibilities a lithium battery explosion in a passenger's luggage, a fuel tank explosion, fuselage fatigue or "the explosion of anything".
"We can say that an in-flight breakup took place," 'Mr. Muqaddam said: "Saying more than this would be entering the space of inference".
He said nothing about the theory that a terrorist bomb brought down the plane, an explanation that has been endorsed by Britain and that President Obama has said he is taking "very seriously." A branch of the Islamic State has claimed responsibility for the crash.
The plane, flown by the Russian airline' Metrojet, was on its way to St. Petersburg, Russia, from the Red Sea resort town of Sharm el Sheikh when it disappeared from radar screens around 30,000 feet. Egypt, which is highly dependent on the money tourists bring to Sharm el Sheikh, has dismissed suggestions that a bomb exploded on the plane. an apparent reference to the bomb theory, Mr. Muqaddam said that some news media reports "claimed to be based on official intelligence that favors a certain scenario for the cause of the accident," and that Egypt had not been provided with that information. After fielding two questions, he left hurriedly, saying, "Please, people are waiting for me . Egyptian airport and security officials say an investigation has been launched into any local staff and ground crew in Sharm el-Sheikh that came into contact with the downed Russian Metrojet flight.
The officials tell The Associated Press on Saturday that authorities are questioning airport staff and have begun surveillance on those who worked on the Russian flight that crashed a week ago in the Sinai desert 23 minutes after taking off from the Red Sea resort.
They spoke on condition of anonymity because they are not authorized to brief reporters.
The British government and u.s officials have said intelligence suggests the plane was downed by a bomb. The crash, which killed all 224 people onboard, dealt another huge blow to Egypt's battered tourism sector, which is yet to fully recover from years of political turmoil.
A top Russian official says Egypt's military has taken control of registering departing passengers for flights out of the country.
The statement Saturday by Deputy Prime Minister Arkady Dvorkovich came as Russian tourists scrambled to leave Egypt following Russia's decision to suspend passenger flights to the country due to security concerns.
Russian airlines are sending empty planes to Egypt to bring home some of the estimated 80,000 Russians in Egypt, most of whom are in Red Sea resort areas.
Dvorkovich said there have been about 10 homeward-bound flights to Russia already on .. Saturday.
The aviation security fears developed after U.S. and British officials said they feared a bomb brought down a Metrojet flight that took off from Sharm el-Sheikh on Oct. 31, killing all 224 people onboard Russian tourists in Egypt are gathering at the Sharm el-Sheikh airport seeking a way home.
Ivan Zaitsev, who works in the printing industry, was in a long, snaking line Saturday of Russian and Kazakh tourists with his wife and young son. He says their travel agent told them the Moscow-bound flight would leave Saturday but that it hasn't appeared on the monitor yet.
Russia has banned all flights to Egypt until aviation security procedures improve but was allowing special flights to bring Russian tourists back home from Sharm el-Sheikh. Those tourists can only bring hand luggage aboard.
Zaitsev says "I think if the government decided something like this they have their reasons ... we're really hoping to fly back safely. This is the main issue now".
Over 100 Russian passengers were left behind in Sharm el-Sheikh early Saturday because they didn't want to leave their luggage in Egypt.
Egypt's foreign minister says his country did not receive the intelligence upon which other" countries based their decisions to ground all flights to the Sharm el-Sheikh airport.
In a press conference Saturday, Foreign Minister Sameh Shourky told reporters that Egypt was not briefed on the intelligence.
He says "we expected that the information available would be communicated to us instead of being broadcast" in the media.
The decision to suspend flights came after a Russian plane that took off from Sharm el-Sheikh airport crashed into the Sinai desert on Oct. 31, killing all 224 aboard. The British government and anonymous u.S. officials have said there was intelligence suggesting the plane was downed by a bomb.
Egyptian airport security officials say a Russian airplane carrying 86 people has left from Sharm el-Sheikh airport.
The two officials say another 113 passengers were left behind early Saturday because they didn't want to leave. their luggage in Egypt. The resort now has strict luggage rules banning any check-in luggage.
Both officials spoke on condition of anonymity because they were not authorized to brief the media. ,-, " Russia on Friday banned flights to Egypt until the country raises its aviation security standards.
Egypt's foreign minister says his country has not received sufficient support from its European partners in its war on terror.
Speaking at a press conference Saturday, Foreign Minister Sameh Shoukry said "European countries did not give us the-cooperation we are hoping for," He says Egypt's past calls for cooperation and coordination from "the countries that are now facing the danger" had not been dealt with seriously. Ahramonline The plane, whose passengers were mainly Russian tourists, lost contact with radar at 6,20am CLT (Cairo local time), less than half an hour after takeoff. It was flying at an altitude of 30,000 feet Reuters .quoted an anonymous officer' on the scene as saying that "the plane split into two, a small part on the tail end that burned and a larger part that crashed into a rockface ''.
An aviation team has retrieved the black boxes of the plane in order to determine the reason behind the crash of the Airbus A-321, which was heading from the Red Sea resort of Sharm El-Sheikh to Russia's St Petersburg .
German carrier Lufthansa and Air France-KLM, two of Europe's largest airlines, have decided to avoid flying over the Sinai Peninsula while they wait for clarity on what caused the airliner to crash, Spokeswomen for the carriers said the decision was made for safety reasons, "We took the decision to avoid the area because the situation and the reasons for the crash were not clear," a Lufthansa spokeswoman told Reuters. "We will continue to avoid the area until it is clear what caused the crash".

Final minutes Contradictory stories
Egypti.an officials released contradictory statements on what happened during the minutes leading up to the incident, Civil Aviation Minister Hossam Kame! told a press conference in Cairo that communication between the Russian plane and air traffic control seemed completely normal prior to the crash.
;,,"The crew didn't even send an SOS and suddenly the plane disappeared off the radar," Kamel said.
Earlier during the day, however, Ayaman El -Mokdam who is heading a government committee to determine the cause of the crash, said that the pilot sensed a technical failure and reported it to air traffic controllers, requesting to land at the nearest airport .
El-Mokadem added that the plane seems to have crashed during the attempt to shift directions in order to land at AI Arish Airport in North Sinai.
The northern part of the mountainous Sinai Peninsula has been the epicentre of an Islamist insurgency that spiked following the 2013 ouster of Islamist president Mohamed Morsi. Egypt President Abdel-Fattah EI-Sisi had announced on Wednesday that a state of emergency has been extended for a further three months in parts of North Sinai.
Egypt's Prime Minister Sherif Ismail told the same conference that the black boxes will arrive in Cairo Saturday evening, saying that "We cannot know what exactly happened to the plane before we first listen to the black box recordings".

Egyptian, Russian investigations
El-Sisi has spoken on the phone with his Russian counterpart Vladimir Putin to discuss the crash, the Kremlin said in a statement. Offering deep condolences, the Egyptian president promised to create conditions for the widest possible participation of Russian specialists in the investigation into the cause of the crash, the statement added.
Egypt's general prosecution has agreed to cooperate with representatives of the Russian government while investigating the incident.
A team of experts from the Russian government and from the company which manufactured the plane will arrive in ";:'Cairo on Saturday evening to join the investigation team," Ismail said .
Russia's emergencies ministry has sent five of its planes to the site of the crash, according to the Russian embassy in Egypt.