Identifying The Pragmatic Force Of Attiudinal Intonation In Some Selected Political Speeches Instructor :Mahmood

The main problem of the present study may be attributed to the fact that some politicians use different ranges and patterns of intonation when they want to express different emotions and attitudes that underlie different pragmatic forces. The study aims at identifying the pragmatic force of attitudinal intonation in some political speeches together with identifying pitch variations that are determined by various syntactic constructions that impart the illocutionary forces of political speeches and perlocutionary acts .The procedures used in this paper are: first, collecting and classifying speeches selected from the ex-American president Barack Obama and the current American President Donald Trump from the internet ; second ,analyzing the data collected by adopting Roach’s patterns of intonation (2009)and Searle’s classification of illocutionary acts intonation (1975) The paper consists of two sections .Section one is a review of literature that comprises the basic terms that are of relevant to the study. Section two deals with methodology , data analysis and results of the study. The main conclusions that the paper has come up with are : (1) meaning is changed by virtue of ranges of intonation, (2) pragmatic force of intonation changes emotions from one person to another by rising or falling the voice of the speaker , (3) some speakers tend to use low and /or high pitches to meet certain pragmatic forces.

The main problem of the present study may be attributed to the fact that some politicians use different ranges and patterns of intonation when they want to express different emotions and attitudes that underlie different pragmatic forces. The study aims at identifying the pragmatic force of attitudinal intonation in some political speeches together with identifying pitch variations that are determined by various syntactic constructions that impart the illocutionary forces of political speeches and perlocutionary acts .The procedures used in this paper are: first, collecting and classifying speeches selected from the ex-American president Barack Obama and the current American President Donald Trump from the internet ; second ,analyzing the data collected by adopting Roach's patterns of intonation (2009)and Searle's classification of illocutionary acts intonation (1975) The paper consists of two sections .Section one is a review of literature that comprises the basic terms that are of relevant to the study. Section two deals with methodology , data analysis and results of the study.

Review of Related Literature: 1.0 Introduction:
To start with , it is probably not easy to write a satisfactory research paper about an evolving subject like pragmatic force of intonation . There are several purpose behind choosing this subject ; firstly , EFL and ESL learners must know what is meant by pragmatics and pragmatic force ; secondly , this topic is very important for grammarians who need some knowledge of English grammar ; this is because the features of intonation are important to signal grammatical distinction such as that between statements and questions. The current section sheds light on the basic terms such as pragmatics, phonology , intonation and some features of political speeches.

Pragmatics:
Pragmatics is concerned with three -termed relations , namely (a) linguistic form, (b) the communicative functions and (c) the context in which these linguistic forms can have communicative functions (Fillmore, 1981:14) . Levinson (1983:19) states that pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context which might be grammaticalized or encoded in the structure of language .In summary , the advantage of studying language via pragmatics is that he or she can talk about people's intended meanings , their purposes or goals.

Levels of Meaning:
According to Thomas( 1995:3), there are two levels of meanings which are of main concern and relevance to the core of the study. The first level is called "abstract meaning " which is concerned with what a word , phrase and sentence could mean (e.g. the dictionary meaning of words or phrase).The second level of meaning is that speaker meaning or pragmatic force which refers to the speaker's communicative intention . For example , when someone tells you ," It is cold in here ! " , the pragmatic force of the above statement is that you can shut the door or turn on the heater .

Phonology:
Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sound system of language. The aim of phonology is to demonstrate the patterns of distinctive sounds found in language (Crystal 2003:350).Similarly , Yule (2010:42) states that " Phonology is concerned with the function , behavior and recognition of items ."

Intonation:
A term used in the study of suprasegmental phonology , referring to the use of patterns of pitches , thus intonation patterns can be seen as a sequence of pitches , levels or tones (Crystal ,2003:242).According to Kelly (2000:86) , intonation refers to how the sounds go up and down in pitch .Intonation helps to determine meaning and gives information about the attitudes of the speakers and get clear messages about their attitudes from the way the things are said .According to Roach (2009:89) , there are four patterns of intonation .They are as follows:

1.Falling Intonation:
Falling intonation occurs when speakers lower their voices at the end of a sentence . This is usually happens in statements and wh-questions. a. Statements Have a great a day b. Question What is your name ? (Kelly ,2000:89)

Rising Intonation
Rising intonation occurs when speakers raise the pitch of their voices at the end of the sentence .This pattern of intonation is used in yes/no questions .Here are some examples. Are you American? Is to day Monday?

3.Falling -Rising Intonation:
Falling -rising intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises . This pattern is used at the end of statements when the speakers want to say that they are not sure or when they may have more to add. For example, I do not support any football team at the moment . Would you like another coffee ?

4.Rising -Falling Intonation:
Rising -falling intonation describes how the voice rises and then falls .This pattern is used for choices , lists , unfinished thoughts and conditional sentences. For example: Are you having soup or salad ?

Searle's Classification of Illocutionary act:
Searle (1975:355) classifies illocutionary acts into five sub classifications as follows: (1) Commissives are speech acts that committing in variant degrees. The speaker expresses acts of promising , pledging , vowing ,swearing , threatening and refusing .
(2) Declaratives are speech acts that the speaker expresses acts of marrying , naming , blessings, arresting ,appointing and firing .
(3) Directives are speech acts that the speaker expresses acts of commanding , insisting , asking , warning , advising and questioning .
(4) Expressives are speech acts that the speaker expresses acts of thanking , greeting, apologizing , congratulating and welcoming . (5) Representatives are speech acts that the speaker expresses acts of stating , believing , concluding , denying , reporting , describing and introducing .

Features of Political Speeches:
Charteris-Black (2005) argues that politics is a complex activity that involves making decisions for a group of people by which differing interests within community.Therefore, successful speakers need to appeal to attitudes and emotions that already within the listeners and when the listeners perceive that their beliefs are understood and supported .For this reason, Connolly (1981: 131) argues that political speech is a collection of speech acts as well as public law, tradition and experience which are determined and expressed in the form of verbal formation . Accordingly, the main features of spoken political speeches include the following : a. Spoken political speeches can be characterized by high degree of formality accompanied by more polite forms. b. It can be marked by higher degree of impersonality. c. It could be distinguished by the choice of specific vocabulary and syntactic structure. d. Many rhetorical devices are used such as metaphor , metonymy and analogy. e. Using implicutures , presuppositions , indirectness and intentionality 2. Methodology and Data Analysis: 2.0 Introduction: The current section is devoted to the practical part of the study which provides research methodology , data analysis and results and discussion of the study .

Participants:
The study includes 30 Iraqi undergraduate students of the department of English , college of Education /Ibn Rushd for humanities -University of Baghdad. They are chosen randomly and they are studying Phonology in and pragmatics in the fourth year .The participants' ages range from 20-47 years .They are selected from both morning and evening studies.

Materials:
The materials used for this study consists of the ex -American president Barrack Obama and the current American President Donald Trump political speeches which are downloaded from the internet and analyzed by using Roach's patterns of intonation model and Searle's classification of illocutionary acts to show the pragmatic force of intonation for each of them.

Procedures:
A suggested approach for the current study based on Roach's patterns of intonation (2009) and Searle's classification of illocutionary acts .The selected speeches vary in length and number of utterances. Thus, ten utterances are selected from Barack Obama's and Donald Trump's political speeches.

Speech (1):
(A) Written Form (Locutionary act) " The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history." (B) Spoken Form (Illocutionary act) / ðə Ꞌ taɪm hᴂz Ꞌ kɅm tə ri ə Ꞌfɜ:m auə in Ꞌdjuəriŋ Ꞌspirit ; tə Ꞌʧu:z auə Ꞌbetə Ꞌ histri / The ex-president Obama uses falling intonation since his utterance conveys certain emotions and attitudes .Thus , the pragmatic force of this utterance is assessing and asserting the situation of America as he intends to make his audience fully convinced of his idea and stance as well as (perlocutionary act ) he tries to make his audience gets excited by his speech .

Speech (2):
(A) Written Form (Locutionary act) " We believe in a generous America , in a compassionate America , in a tolerant America ." (B) Spoken Form (Illocutionary act) / Wi: bɪ Ꞌli:v ɪn Ꞌʤenərəs ə Ꞌmerɪkə , ɪn ə kəm Ꞌpᴂʃənət ə Ꞌmerɪkə , ɪn ə tolərənt ə Ꞌmerɪkə / Obama uses rising intonation because he lists and numerates the good traits of America .The pragmatic force of these utterances is that offering and promising and the expected (perlocutionary effect) is happiness and hopefulness.

Speech (3):
(A) Written Form (Locutionary act) " I do not believe progress is possible if our desire to preserve our identities gives way to an impulse to dehumanize or dominate another group." (B) Spoken Form (Illocutionary act) /aɪ Ꞌdu: not Ꞌ bɪli:v Ꞌprogress ɪz Ꞌposəbl ɪf auə di Ꞌzaɪə tə prɪ Ꞌzɜ:v auə aɪ Ꞌdentətiz Ꞌgɪvz Ꞌweɪ tə ən ꞋmpɅls tə di Ꞌhu:mənaɪz ᴐ: Ꞌdomɪneɪt / Obama uses falling -rising pattern of intonation . The pragmatic force of this utterance is that he is not certain and not sure about what will happen in America , the perlocutionary effect is uncertainty and doubt .

Speech (4): (A) Written Form (Locutionary act)
Will we respond to the changes of our time with fear , turning inward as a nation , and turning against each other as people ? (B) Spoken Form (Illocutionary act) / wɪl wɪ rɪ Ꞌspond tə ðə Ꞌʧeɪnʤɪz əv auə Ꞌtaɪm wɪð Ꞌfɪə , Ꞌtɜ:nɪŋ Ꞌnwəd əz Ꞌneɪʃn , ən Ꞌtɜ:nɪŋ ə Ꞌgenst i:ʧ ꞋɅðə əz Ꞌpi:pl / Obama uses rising -falling pattern of intonation and the pragmatic force is that directive act in that he tries to defend the progress made over the eight years and setting out an agenda that will remain after his presidency ends .The perlocutionary act is a valedictory farewell.
(B) Spoken Form (Illocutionary act) / Ꞌ θᴂŋk ju: ə Ꞌ merɪkə. Ꞌ gɅd Ꞌ bles ju: / Obama uses falling -rising intonation and that the pragmatic force of his utterance is an expressive act since the speaker expresses his thanking and gratitude to America. The perlocutionary act is gratefulness and appreciation.

Trump's Political Speeches:
Speech (1): (A) Written Form (Locutionary act) All the Nations of the world , friend or foe -will find that America is strong .America is proud , and America is free. (B) Spoken Form (Illocutionary act) / Ꞌ ᴐ:l ðə Ꞌ neıʃənz əv ðə Ꞌ wɜ:ld , Ꞌ frend ᴐ:r Ꞌ fəu -wıl Ꞌ faınd ðət ə Ꞌ merɪkə ɪz Ꞌstrɑŋ. ə Ꞌ merɪkə ɪz Ꞌpraud , ən ə Ꞌ merɪkə ɪz Ꞌ fri: President Trump uses rising intonation because he enumerates the good features of America . Thus , the pragmatic force of these utterances is a commissive act in that he promises his audience that America will be strong , proud and free. The perlocutionary act indicates that something happy and hopeful will happen .

Speech (2):
(A) Written Form (Locutionary act) I will not allow the mistakes of recent decades past to define the cause of our future.
(B) Spoken Form (Illocutionary act) / aɪ wɪl nɑt Ꞌ əlau ðə Ꞌ mɪsteɪks əv Ꞌ ri:sənt di Ꞌkeɪdz pa:st tə di Ꞌ faɪn ðə Ꞌ kᴐ:z əv auə Ꞌ fju:ʧə . / President Trump uses falling -rising pattern of intonation and the pragmatic force of this speech is directive act in that he insists and warns not to let the mistakes of the past be repeated .

Speech (3) (A) Written Form ( Locutionary act)
I have directed the department of Just to form a task force on reducing violent crime (B) Spoken Form (Illocutionary act) / aɪ həv Ꞌ daɪrektɪd ðə dipa:tmənt əv Ꞌ ʤɅst tə Ꞌ fᴐ:m ə ta:sk fᴐ:s ɑn rɪdjusɪŋ viələnt kraɪm. President Trump uses rising -falling intonation .The pragmatic force of this speech is a directive act because he commands the department of justice to form a task force on reducing violent crime. The perlocutionary act is a kind of warning.

Speech (4):
(A) Written Form ( Locutionary act) I will fight for you with every breath in my body .
(B) Spoken Form (Illocutionary act) / aɪ wɪl Ꞌ faɪt fər ju: wɪð Ꞌevri Ꞌ breθ ɪn maɪ Ꞌ bɅdi / Trump uses rising intonation and the pragmatic force of his utterance is a commissive act in that he promises his audience that he will fight for them .The perlocutionary act is optimism and hopefulness .
To sum up , the table below shows the distribution of participants according to gender , age , patterns of intonation and pragmatic force:

CONCLUSION:
The paper has come up with the following conclusions: 1.Intonation is needed to determine the pragmatic force of utterances when there is no any other illocutionary markers .
2. Intonation and pragmatics are two forces related to the domain of utterances .
3. The pragmatic function of pitch variation is determined by how different grammatical patterns could convey the same illocutionary force and how one grammatical pattern could deliver different illocutionary patterns .
4. Pragmatic force of intonation changes emotions and attitudes from one person to another by falling and rising the voice of the speaker . 5. It is found that EFL and ESL learners face difficulties in understanding the pragmatic force of political speeches of falling -rising and risingfalling patterns of intonation more than falling and rising patterns of intonation .
6. According to the obtained results , it is found that male students find much more difficulty than female students in identifying pragmatic force of intonation.